The Middle Passage  

The voyage from the African coast to the Americas was, by all accounts, one of the most horrible in all of maritime history. Africans carried on a slave ship were treated as a cargo of livestock, with hundreds of people crowded into the vessel’s hold. During the 6 to 8 weeks they spent at sea, they were given little in the way of comfort or reassurance. Their passage across the Atlantic Ocean was dominated by suffering, sickness and fear.  

A description written from the Congo Coast in 1859 says of the slavers:

   “…they sail cautiously yet boldly in, anchor, and in two or three hours are filled with negroes, who are carried off to them in canoes. The refractory ones are clapped in irons, or made drunk with rum; and in this stupefied condition they are carried aboard, stowed in a sitting posture, with the knees drawn up so closely that they can scarcely breathe, much less move.

   Now their sufferings become dreadful – horrible; indeed, human language is incapable of describing, or imagination of sketching even the faint outline of a dimly floating fancy of what their condition is – homesick, seasick, half starved, naked, crying for air, for water, the strong killing the weak or dying in order to make room, the hold becomes a perfect charnel house of death and misery – a misery and anguish only conceivable by those who have endured it.”

Despite the drastic and horrific conditions, four out of five Africans on average survived the voyage. 

The Law

Though the US allowed slavery in certain areas until 1863, it had some of the earliest and strictest laws against the international traffic in slaves. In 1794 slave ships were prohibited from outfitting in American ports. In 1800 American citizens anywhere were prohibited from carrying people for slavery from one foreign country to another, and in 1808 (amended and updated by the act of 1818) any importation of people for the purpose of slavery into the United States or its territories was outlawed. And in 1820, participation in the slave trade was considered an act of piracy, and punishable by death. Unfortunately, the enforcement of these laws was sporadic and uneven, rendering them ineffective.

Of the slavers brought into Key West, the Wildfire, William, and Bogota were seized under the acts of 1794 and 1800, and condemned by Judge William Marvin. They were sold at public auction, and the proceeds were split between the US Treasury and the crews of the Navy cruisers who captured them.

The Captains were jailed at Key West, but allowed bail – the seamen for $450, and the Captains, $1,000. Eventually charges were brought against Phillip Stanhope, and the crew of the Wildfire, and Washington Symmes (alias William Weston), Master of the William. They were initially indicted under the act of 1820, but eventually tried under the Acts of 1800 and 1818. The Grand jury found “no true bill” against Stanhope and crew, and a verdict of “not guilty” against Symmes. Despite being caught red-handed, they were freed.

Protection Under the American Flag

Slavers in the 19^th century often found protection for the illicit trade by sailing their vessels under the American flag. This unintended haven was the result of a deep-seated distrust of the fledgling United States toward the British, and their policies in Africa. Since the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, Great Britain had been the traditional political rival of the US; and as the young nation’s productivity began to grow, also an economic rival. 

Though all of the former slave trading powers had renounced the trade, and had formed cooperative efforts amongst their navies to intercept and capture slave ships, the US felt the British Navy had too much power to harass American merchantmen. Both nations were interested in developing stronger “legitimate” relations with the nations of Africa. Fearing excessive bullying by Britain, the US refused to allow its ships to be boarded and inspected by vessels of any other nation. This policy, combined with the relatively small effort put forth by the US to patrol the African Coast, made it much safer slavers to fly the American flag.

Often a game of “Show me yours and I’ll show you mine” ensued between the patrol vessels and the slavers. When the US Steamer Crusader first encountered the slaver Bogota, the following exchange was recorded in the log, “At 1.45 made a Barque to the Eastward, stood for her. At 2.30 hoisted English colors, she responded with French – at 2.45 sounded to ahead of the Barque and hoisted American colors – she lowered her flag and did not hoist it again…” The Bogota had been tricked, and was forced to “take the 5^th” by repudiating all nationality. She was later found to be American owned, and condemned.

American Slave Ships

Many of the ships that sailed for the African coast to Cuba, trading in slaves were American built and owned vessels. Despite such activity being considered an act of piracy by the US Government, and one that was punishable by death, a variety of factors made it too tempting a venture to avoid.

New York Docks

Beginning in 1852, there was a frenzy of ship construction among the shipyards of New England, based mostly on hopes of cashing in on the rapidly increasing demands of California. Both construction and demand peaked in 1855. As it turns out, this boom was the last hurrah for American sail. Too many ships had been built, and changing times quickly conspired against them. California’s markets became saturated – shipping rates fell from $25 per ton in the early 1850’s, to $11 in 1857. Increased domestic manufacturing lessened the need for overseas imports. The ships also began aging, and required more money to be properly maintained. There was a glut of sail in the late 1850’s, and ship-owners were eager to make money any way they could.

Increased effectiveness of the British patrols in intercepting slavers, and slowing the trade on the seas did not mean that the taking of prisoners among the African traders was slowed. The resulting abundance of captives for sale along the West African coast meant lower prices. The opposite resulted on the other side of the Atlantic. Cuban sugar prices were reaching all-time highs, and demands for labor increasing. The price being paid for slaves there soared. Otherwise idle American ships could buy low in Africa and sell high in Cuba, making so much money, it was worth any risk of capture.

Identifying a Slaver in 1860

Ships engaged in the Slave Trade in the mid-19^th century had a chameleon-like character, and aimed, as much as possible to disguise themselves as legitimate merchantmen. Generally, they tried to pass with the claim that they were engaged in the palm oil trade. But, because of the specific needs of their intended cargo, all slavers carried telltale signs of their true intentions. Unless a ship was caught red-handed, with a hold full of people, these indicators are what were looked for by the Navy vessels. It often required a persistent and cunning search before the evidence was uncovered.

The most revealing material carried on a clandestine slaver was an abundance of wood planking. This material was intended for the construction of the “Slave deck,” in the hold of the ship. Because lumber was not readily available on the African coast, it had to be carried across the Atlantic. A large number of provisions, water casks, and utensils  - much more than needed by the crew, and in anticipation of hundreds of Africans - also aroused suspicion. Other indicators of a ship being a possible slaver were double sets of papers, Spanish or Portuguese sailors, unusually high wages for the crew, and large amounts of cash (especially gold).  Cargoes of cotton calico-print cloth, crockery, liquor, knives, cigars, iron bars, and guns or gunpowder also aroused suspicion, as they were popular items in the exchange for slaves. Shackles, because they provided such clear evidence of a vessel’s intentions, were rarely carried.

Captain William Inman wrote in 1859 to the commanding officers of the anti-slavery squadrons about the character of their prey, “The cunning of the slaver is constantly forming new disguises to elude the detection and escape the consequences of his crimes…I have only in view to impress you with a deep sense of the artful character of the adversaries with whom you will have to deal, and of their reckless disregard of all truth and honor as well as of law and humanity. Nothing but the utmost vigilance and caution will enable you to detect them. I have no doubt your own observation and sagacity will soon discover other contrivances for deceiving and escaping you, and I have as little doubt that you will apply promptly and efficiently the requisite means of defeating all such attempts.”

The Slave Barque Wildfire

Construction for the Clipper Bark Wildfire began in 1852 at the Simon McKay shipyard at the mouth of the Powow River in Amesbury, Massachusetts. On March 31, 1853 the Amesbury Villager reported, “We learn that the new and beautiful clipper ship built at the yard of Mr. McKay, at Amesbury Ferry, will be launched on Wednesday next. As a specimen of skill in shipbuilding, combining speed, beauty of model and elegance of finish, she cannot be excelled by anything yet set afloat on the Merrimac. Such is the confidence of her builders in her sailing qualities that they will challenge the whole fleet of sailing vessels in New England to a trial of speed.”  McKay’s confidence apparently was justified. The Boston Daily Atlas of July 9^th, 1853 had this to say, “The clipper barque Wildfire, Capt. Mosman, which sailed from this port May 13^, arrived at Malta June 8. She passed Gibraltar when 14 days out [a new trans-Atlantic record]; but afterwards encountered a severe Levanter, and had to beat every inch of the way from the Rock to Malta. A letter from her captain says that she is not only an excellent sea boat, but the swiftest vessel he ever saw. Her best day’s work was 306 geographical miles, the wind at times rather light and variable; but with a good whole sail breeze, she can ball 15 knots with ease. Her captain asserts boldly that no vessel in the Mediterranean trade can begin to approach her in speed, and we know from personal inspection that she is well built and beautiful.”  She was built of Oak and fastened with copper and iron fasteners. She had one main deck and a half-poop deck. Wildfire was listed at 338.3 tons with the following dimensions – length 128 ft. 4 in. (on deck); breadth 27 ft. 4 in.; depth of hold 10 ft. 6 in. she drew 12 feet of water. Her lower hull was covered with metal sheathing in October of 1858 as protection from wood-boring marine worms.

Wildfire was built for Peter Hargous of New York, and originally intended for the Mediterranean trade. She was later employed by the Hargous Brothers as a packet-ship, sailing between New York and Vera Cruz. She made her last voyage to Mexico in August of 1859.

On December 13, 1859, Wildfire was sold to slave-trader Pierre Lepage Pearce, and was entered into the illegal African trade. She cleared New York on December 16, 1859 with a cargo of calicoes and other cotton goods, headed for St. Thomas, Danish West Indies under William Stanhope, Master.  She was outfitted additionally there, and then sailed for the West coast of Africa.

On March 18, 1860, Wildfire left the Congo River with 615 Africans, bound for Cuba. She was sighted by the U.S. Steamer Mohawk on April 26 off Paredon Grande on the north side of the island. According to Mohawk’s log, “At 12:30 boarded an American barque, having onboard a Cargo of slaves. Sent Lieuts. Barbot + Carpenter with Master’s Mate Craven and 13 men to take charge of her. Received on board 22 prisoners…” That night one of the prisoners committed suicide by jumping overboard. The following crew of the Wildfire were delivered to the US Marshal at Key West:

Also delivered to the Marshal were 507 Africans – mostly teenagers, and many very sick from the unhealthy conditions suffered during their voyage.  Wildfire was refitted at the Congo River with extra decking installed in the hold to accommodate this human cargo. May H. Stacey, of the US Steamer Crusader, visited the ship and wrote of the space constructed for the Africans, “A glance on the slave deck was enough to fill the mind with indiscernible horror at the thought of what the poor creatures must have suffered in twenty eight days passage. The deck was constructed of rough unplaned planks and raised from the ship’s bottom about three feet leaving a space of about four feet in height and extending fore and aft.”

By May 5th proceedings against “The American Bark Wildfire, her tackle, apparel, furniture, guns and appurtenances, +c.” were filed by the United States at the court in Key West. The vessel was condemned by Judge William Marvin on June 7^th, and ordered to be sold by the US Marshal at public auction. Sometime later that month, or in early July, the sale of the Wildfire brought $6454.38, and after expenses, net proceeds of $6087.76 were divided equally between the US Treasury and the crew of the Mohawk.

Wildfire had been purchased by Gomez, Wallis & Co., and they had the hull sheathed with new metal in January of 1861. In February the ship was inspected at New York, and rated class “A2.” What became of the Wildfire after this apparent rehabilitation is not known.

The Bark Bogota

The Bark Bogota was built in Honfleur, near the northern French port of Le Havre for J.T. Barbay. The ship was built of White Oak, and held together with copper and iron fasteners. The hull was sheathed with metal as an anti-fouling agent and protection against wood-boring marine worms. She had one main deck supported by iron knees, and beams installed below for the quick construction of a second. There was also had a shorter half-poop deck at the stern. Bogota was registered at 232 tons, and classed “A1 ½”.  In 1859, the ship was listed as being under the command of a captain named “Masqulses.”

Sometime around October 1^st, 1859, Bogota left New York, and began a voyage that would take her to the slave-trading port of Whydah in the Kingdom of Dahomey. On May 23^rd the United States Steamer Crusader, on patrol for illegal slavers, intercepted a suspicious vessel in the Old Bahama Channel off the north coast of Cuba. The Crusader’s log states, “At 1.45 made a Barque to Eastward, stood for her. At 2.30 hoisted English colors, she responded with French – at 2.45 sounded to ahead of Barque 84 87 and hoisted American colors – she lowered her flag and did not hoist it again – Then sent Lt. Duncan on board; the vessel proved to be a “Slaver,” without name, papers or flag! – the Captain repudiating all nationality. Took the vessel as a lawful prize, and received the crew onboard, as prisoners.”

Bogota was taken into Key West on May 25^th, 1860, where 411 Africans were taken off and put under the care of US Marshal Moreno. “They are a fine body of men and women, large, healthy, and strong, and evidently were well taken care of on board the vessel,” wrote Moreno. The captain of the ship proved to be a Frenchman, and all of the crew either French, Spanish or Portuguese. The supercargo of the Bogota told authorities that two-thirds of the slave-trading venture had been financed in New York.

The Bark William

The American Bark William was built in 1847 at Damariscotta, Maine. She was registered at 232 tons, and built of mixed woods with iron fasteners. She had one deck, and drew 12 feet of water. In 1855, metal sheathing was applied to her hull as protection from wood-boring marine worms. William was owned by the shipping company of Galwey, Casado & Teller.

On June 2, 1859, William was sold to Baltimore resident Thomas W. Williams, and she sailed from NY for Mobile on July 4^th. On September 25^th it left there for Havana, and arrived after a voyage of 4 days. In October plans were made for a voyage to Africa. She sailed for the Congo River, and there took onboard 744 Africans. She set sail for Cuba on March 10^th, 1860. Near the Isle of Pines, on May 9^th, William was captured by the US Navy Steamer Wyandotte off the south side of Cuba. 570 Africans were found on board. Of a crew of 24, only one, the Captain, was American. His name was Washington Symmes of Philadelphia (at capture he was using the alias William Weston – a combination of his brother’s first name, and mother’s maiden name). The Wyandotte’s Fabius Stanly was offered $25,000 by the crew of the William to let the ship go, but he refused the bribe.

The Wyandotte towed the William into Key West on May 12^th, and delivered 513 Africans to the care of US Marshal Fernando Moreno. Most of these people were children, and had been treated very poorly while on the William. Many were very sick, or dying.

On May 17^th, a libel was filed against the William by the US Attorney, and Judge William Marvin condemned the vessel and ordered her sale. By June 16^th the William was auctioned, and sold to Antonio Pelletier for $4571.96. In a bizarre twist, Key West businessman Asa Tift wrote on August 24^th, “The William was run out of town last night, with a one eyed man who pretended to be the owner, and six men. They took an officer who was on board. One of our pilot boats ran out, and brot her back. She will get her papers and go to Mobile – I think.” The man who stole her was David Martin (alias, Lincoln Patten, alias Gilman Dresser, alias George Walker) who had also stolen the infamous slaver Wanderer in October of 1859. There appears to have been some earlier connection between Martin and the William, because when he took Wanderer he had her name painted over and replaced with “William.” Martin was arrested in November for his involvement with the Wanderer, and imprisoned.

After William left Key West, she was taken to Havana by Pelletier. This man was no stranger to the slave trade, and had been arrested in December of 1858, along with his vessel Ardennes, for engaging in an illegal slaving voyage to Africa. Apparently Pelletier’s interest in the trade was not deterred. Notice was sent to U.S. authorities from Havana on September 5^th, stating that the ship and a crew of Spaniards had just left there, headed first to New Orleans then Mobile. Their intent was to outfit, and then sail from Alabama to Africa on yet another slaving voyage. Instead, in December Pelletier sailed the William to Haiti, adopting the new alias “J. Letellier,” and calling the ship “Guillaume Tell.” He went with the intent of luring workers aboard his ship with contracts to collect guano at an offshore island, and then kidnap them and sell them as slaves in Cuba. After receiving a warning at Port-au-Prince to leave the country, he sailed to the north coast to continue his scheme. A crewmember broke away from Pelletier, and confessed the plan to the French and Haitian authorities, who petitioned Pelletier to come ashore. On April 5, 1861, he did, and was placed under arrest. He was later convicted and imprisoned. The William was taken, and put under the charge of the Haitian government at Ft. Liberté. Then, after such sad events in a long career, the William was lost to history.