Cuban Society in 1860

Social standing in mid-19^th century Cuba was a caste-like system, and divisions were largely dictated by one’s color and ethnic origin. With many races, and combinations of races, a complex social strata evolved. Rendered in the simplest of terms, the divisions were the Whites, The Free People of color, and the Slaves.

The Whites were those from Spain (Peninsulares), and those of American birth (Criollos). The Peninsulares considered themselves the superior group at the time, and controlled much of the business in Cuba. The Criollos tended to be involved in the agricultural interests. Though the Whites found divisions amongst themselves, they were all equal with respect to political, social and economic freedom.

The free persons of color (gentes de color) were those of mixed race, often the illegitimate offspring of white masters and slaves, or freed slaves. This group was classified further into mullato (pardo), and black (moreno). They were prominent in the service industries. After 1847, Chinese coolies brought in as indentured servants were also classified in this group, although after the emancipation of the slaves in 1886, they fell to the lowest rung of the social ladder.

At the bottom were the Slaves. These people, almost exclusively of African descent, were wholly owned by White masters. Their sole purpose was to provide free labor for the benefit of their owners. They had no freedoms.

The Cuban Slave Trade

Though the slave trade made its first appearance in Cuba in the early 1500’s, it was not until much later that people were brought to the island in large numbers. Until the late 1700’s, Cuba’s economy was tied exclusively to Spain. Under the inefficient asiento system, in which monopolistic, mercantile contracts were granted by the Crown, Cuban goods were allowed to be sold only to Spanish markets. Spain also denied the production of certain goods in her colonies to ensure there was always an export market. Under these restrictions, agricultural exports were severely limited, and slave labor was generally linked to relatively small-scale manufacturing, primarily in Havana.

With the success of both Barbados and Jamaica as sugar producing colonies, the Cuban elite saw a similar potential for their island, and began petitioning the Crown to ease restrictions. In the 1740’s all taxes were removed from Cuban sugar entering Spain, and production began to increase. In 1762, Havana was seized by England, and an eleven-month occupation ensued. This crippled the Spanish asiento system. Cuban exports were sent to the British markets, further increasing the demand for sugar. The British also had an effective slave-trading system, and during their occupation over 5,000 Africans were brought to the island. The stage was set for increased sugar production in Cuba, and the most reliable source for manning such an industry was Africa.

In 1789 Spain opened the Slave Trade to Havana, and thus, at a time when the abolitionist movement was gaining momentum in other nations, Cuba was increasing its interest in the business. For three decades slave imports continued unfettered. Eventually, intensive British pressure forced Spain to agree in 1817 that it would end the Slave Trade within three years. In 1818, with a policy that would only increase the need for slave labor, Spain opened Cuban markets to the World, further fueling sugar exports. With its new economy dependent on them, Africans continued to pour into the island. From 1835-40, 165,000 new slaves arrived. Treaties between England and Spain resulted in British cruisers patrolling the waters of West Africa and Cuba for slavers. This eventually made passage safe only for vessels flying the American flag.

The Cuban coast, being ringed with many inlets, bays and coves, made it easy for the clandestine slavers to unload their cargoes without being seen. Ashore, the general population of the island was supportive of slavery, and there was little chance of a ship’s arrival being reported. With prices for slaves being 10 times the amount paid in Africa, many ships were willing to take this small risk. Approximately five-percent of the Africans being shipped to Cuba in the 19^th century were intercepted by authorities. Conveying the attitude of Cubans toward the trade, the British consul-general at Havana wrote to the Prime Minister in May of 1860, “Every Spaniard being imbued with the idea that the prosperity of Cuba depends on the slave trade being continued, the pressure on the Government at Madrid, as well as here, is such that they are apprehensive that disorder would ensue did they not tolerate its being carried on, and they dare not make any efforts for its suppression.”

The beginning of the end of the Cuban Slave Trade was not far away though, after the American-Anglo treaty of 1862 made the business too risky for Americans. This was followed by Lincoln’s Emancipation proclamation in 1863. With their largest neighbor out of the game, the Cubans could see the end for themselves. The last slave ship arrived in Cuba in 1866. Twenty years later, slavery was abolished completely on the island.

Sugar and Slaves

Cuba’s thriving plantation system of the mid-1800’s fueled the island’s demand for slave labor. Coffee, tobacco, and, most importantly, sugar all required a heavy investment of human labor to be successfully raised, harvested and produced. In 1860 Cuba was home 1,365 sugar mills producing 450,000 tons of crystal, some 30% of the World’s annual supply. Nearly 370,000 slaves were engaged in its production.

Sugar cane is a perennial grass of the genus Saccharum. The stalk is bamboo-like in structure, and grows to between 5 and 15 feet tall. The stalk holds a sticky liquid high in sucrose, which is the object of the production. The cycle from planting to harvesting ranges between 12 and 15 months.

Sugar cane in 1860 was harvested by hand, and cut with a machete-like cane knife as low to the ground as possible, as the bottom part of the stalk contains a higher amount of liquid. The cut cane was cleaned, crushed in a mill, and pressed. The juice collected in a gutter below which then directed it to a series of boiling pans, where it would be heated, clarified and purified. As the heat evaporated the water from the cane juice, the sucrose began to crystallize. This slurry was then taken to a two-story building called the “purging house.” The upper floor of this building was pierced with thousands of holes for holding upright metal funnels into which the partially processed sugar was placed. This allowed the molasses to drain off the sugar, and fall into vats below. The crystalline sugar was then graded by color, and prepared for market. The molasses was sold as well, or, often in combination with other sugar by-products, distilled into rum.

The essential requirements for sugar plantations in 1860 were land, oxen, forests and slaves. The land grew the cane, the oxen provided transportation and powered the mills, forests yielded firewood for boiling, and slaves provided all the labor.

Afro-Cuban Identities

In 1860, there were just over 370,000 slaves in Cuba – 218,000 were males and 152,000 were females. Over eighty percent were working on the ingenios (sugar plantations). Virtually all of these people were African, or of African descent, originating from regions along the West coast of that continent.  Most maintained their national identities throughout the period of slavery, and beyond. The four major groups found in Afro-Cuban slave society were:

Lucumi – These people were of Yoruba origin from Southwestern Nigeria. An estimated 275,000 were brought to Cuba, mostly in the period 1820-60, corresponding with the fall of the Oyo empire. They are the originators of the Santería religion.

Arará – Of Fon, Ewe, Popo, and Makhi origin, these people came from Dahomey and surrounding areas.  The majority, of the approximately 200,000 that arrived, came in the late 1700’s, after defeats by the Yoruba.

Carabalí (also Abakuá) – These people came from Southeastern Nigeria, and were primarily of Igbo and Ijaw origin. They came to Cuba primarily in the late 1700’s, and early 1800’s, and it is estimated that 240,000 arrived.

Kongo –This was the largest ethnic group brought to Cuba, with around 400,000 people imported.  They were from various Bantu cultures centered in the region of Angola. They came throughout the entire period of the slave trade to the island.

Another 185,000 people are estimated to have been brought from other regions of Africa. Among these were the Mandinga and Malikes of Sierra Leone, the Minas from the Gold Coast region, and the Macuás of Mozambique.

Free Afro-Cubans were allowed to form Cabildos, or mutual aid societies, and these were generally organized according to ethnic origin. These groups served not only as social centers, but also as outlets to express the various cultural traditions that had flowed into the island. They allowed the African way of life many had known before slavery to continue, and shape the religious, artistic and social institutions that define “Cuban” culture today.